Форум АСУ в Україні

Contributors xiii
Introduction xxi
Definitions xxvii
Abbreviations, Nomenclature, Acronyms, and Symbols xxxix
Societies and Organizations li
1 General Considerations

1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 4
1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 31
1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 46
1.4 System Accuracy 78
1.5 Uncertainty Calculations 86
1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices 93
1.7 Instrument Installation 100
1.8 Instrument Calibration 108
1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 114
1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems 126
1.11 Instrument Evaluation 136
1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams 142

2 Flow Measurement 151

2.1 Application and Selection 156
2.2 Anemometers 173
2.3 BTU Flowmeters for Heat Exchangers 177
2.4 BTU Flowmeters for Gaseous Fuels 180
2.5 Cross-Correlation Flow Metering 183
2.6 Elbow Taps 189
2.7 Flow Switches 193
2.8 Jet Deflection Flow Detectors 198
2.9 Laminar Flowmeters 201
2.10 Magnetic Flowmeters 208
2.11 Mass Flowmeters, Coriolis 225
2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous 237
2.13 Mass Flowmeters—Thermal 244
2.14 Metering Pumps 251
2.15 Orifices 259
2.16 Pitot Tubes and Area Averaging Units 277
2.17 Polyphase (Oil/Water/Gas) Flowmeters 287
2.18 Positive-Displacement Gas Flowmeters 294
2.19 Positive-Displacement Liquid Meters and Provers 299
2.20 Purge Flow Regulators 307
2.21 Segmental Wedge Flowmeter 310
2.22 Sight Flow Indicators 313
2.23 Solids Flowmeters and Feeders 318
2.24 Target Meters 335
2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 337
2.26 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 357
2.27 Variable-Area, Gap, and Vane Flowmeters 362
2.28 V-Cone Flowmeter 371
2.29 Venturi Tubes, Flow Tubes, and Flow Nozzles 374
2.30 Vortex and Fluidic Flowmeters 384
2.31 Weirs and Flumes 395

3 Level Measurement 401

3.1 Application and Selection 405
3.2 Bubblers 421
3.3 Capacitance and Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance 430
3.4 Conductivity and Field-Effect Level Switches 445
3.5 Diaphragm Level Detectors 449
3.6 Differential Pressure Level Detectors 454
3.7 Displacer Level Devices 465
3.8 Float Level Devices 474
3.9 Laser Level Sensors 482
3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 486
3.11 Microwave Level Switches 497
3.12 Optical Level Devices 500
3.13 Radar, Noncontacting Level Sensors 504
3.14 Radar, Contact Level Sensors (TDR, GWR, PDS) 508
3.15 Radiation Level Sensors 514
3.16 Resistance Tapes 526
3.17 Rotating Paddle Switches 530
3.18 Tank Gauges Including Float-Type Tape Gauges 533
3.19 Thermal Level Sensors 544
3.20 Ultrasonic Level Detectors 548
3.21 Vibrating Level Switches 556

4 Temperature Measurement 561

4.1 Application and Selection 565
4.2 Bimetallic Thermometers 590
4.3 Calibrators and Simulators 594
4.4 Cones, Crayons, Labels, Paints, and Pellets 599
4.5 Fiber-Optic Thermometers 604
4.6 Filled-Bulb and Glass-Stem Thermometers 610
4.7 Integrated Circuitry Transistors and Diodes 620
4.8 Miscellaneous and Discontinued Sensors 623
4.9 Radiation and Infrared Pyrometers 630
4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 645
4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 657
4.12 Thermistors 666
4.13 Thermocouples 673
4.14 Thermowells 697
4.15 Ultrasonic and Sonic Thermometers 705

5 Pressure Measurement 709

5.1 Selection and Application 712
5.2 Accessories (Seals, Snubbers, Calibrators, Manifolds) 718
5.3 Bellows-Type Pressure Sensors 726
5.4 Bourdon and Helical Pressure Sensors 731
5.5 Diaphragm or Capsule-Type Sensors 736
5.6 Differential Pressure Instruments 743
5.7 Electronic Pressure Sensors 751
5.8 High-Pressure Sensors 762
5.9 Manometers 766
5.10 Multiple Pressure Scanners 774
5.11 Pressure Gauges 779
5.12 Pressure Repeaters 785
5.13 Pressure and Differential Pressure Switches 790
5.14 Vacuum Sensors 795

6 Density Measurement 807

6.1 Density: Applications and Selection 809
6.2 Displacement- and Float-Type Densitometers 816
6.3 Hydrometers 823
6.4 Hydrostatic Densitometers 826
6.5 Oscillating Coriolis Densitometer (Gas, Liquid, and Slurry Services) 831
6.6 Radiation Densitometers 836
6.7 Ultrasonic Sludge and Slurry Densitometers 841
6.8 Liquid/Slurry/Gas Density—Vibrating Densitometers 844
6.9 Weight-Based and Miscellaneous Densitometers 852
6.10 Gas Densitometers 857

7 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors 865

7.1 Boroscopes 872
7.2 Electrical and Intrinsic Safety 875
7.3 Electrical Meters and Sensors 889
7.4 Energy Management Devices (Peak Load Shedding) 903
7.5 Excess Flow and Regular Check Valves 908
7.6 Explosion Suppression and Deluge Systems 912
7.7 Flame Arresters, Conservation Vents, and Emergency Vents 920
7.8 Flame, Fire, and Smoke Detectors 928
7.9 Leak Detectors 936
7.10 Linear and Angular Position Detection 944
7.11 Machine Vision Technology 951
7.12 Metal Detectors 955
7.13 Noise Sensors 958
7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 964
7.15 Relief Valves—Determination of Required Capacity 973
7.16 Relief Valves—Sizing, Specification, and Installation 991
7.17 Rupture Discs 1018
7.18 Soft Sensors 1030
7.19 Tachometers and Angular Speed Detectors 1038
7.20 Thickness and Dimension Measurement 1045
7.21 Torque and Force Transducers 1051
7.22 Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration 1061
7.23 Weather Stations 1077
7.24 Weighing Systems: General Considerations 1084
7.25 Weight Sensors 1101

8 Analytical Instrumentation 1127

8.1 Analyzer Application and Selection 1144
8.2 Analyzer Sampling: Process Samples 1170
8.3 Analyzer Sampling: Stack Particulates 1189
8.4 Analyzers Operating on Electrochemical Principles 1198
8.5 Air Quality Monitoring 1207
8.6 Biometers 1222
8.7 Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Total Oxygen Demand 1224
8.8 Calorimeters 1235
8.9 Carbon Dioxide 1242
8.10 Carbon Monoxide 1245
8.11 Chlorine 1251
8.12 Chromatographs: Gas 1258
8.13 Chromatographs: Liquid 1289
8.14 Coal Analyzers 1295
8.15 Colorimeters 1299
8.16 Combustibles 1304
8.17 Conductivity Analyzers 1316
8.18 Consistency Analyzers 1323
8.19 Corrosion Monitoring 1329
8.20 Differential Vapor Pressure Sensor 1335
8.21 Dioxin Analysis 1339
8.22 Elemental Monitors 1342
8.23 Fiber-Optic Probes 1347
8.24 Fluoride Analyzers 1353
8.25 Hydrocarbon Analyzers 1358
8.26 Hydrogen Sulfide 1364
8.27 Infrared and Near-Infrared Analyzers 1369
8.28 Ion-Selective Electrodes 1388
8.29 Mass Spectrometers 1399
8.30 Mercury in Ambient Air 1407
8.31 Mercury in Water 1413
8.32 Moisture in Air: Humidity and Dew Point 1420
8.33 Moisture in Gases and Liquids 1434
8.34 Moisture in Solids 1450
8.35 Molecular Weight 1457
8.36 Nitrate, Ammonia, and Total Nitrogen 1469
8.37 Nitrogen Oxide Analyzers 1474
8.38 Odor Detection 1480
8.39 Oil in or on Water 1486
8.40 Open Path Spectrophotometry (UV, IR, FT-IR) 1493
8.41 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) 1506
8.42 Oxygen in Gases 1514
8.43 Oxygen in Liquids (Dissolved Oxygen) 1526
8.44 Ozone in Gas 1536
8.45 Ozone in Water 1540
8.46 Particulates, Opacity, Dust, and Smoke 1544
8.47 Particle Size and Distribution Monitors 1559
8.48 pH Measurement 1565
8.49 Phosphorus Analyzer 1585
8.50 Physical Properties Analyzers—ASTM Methods 1589
8.51 Raman Analyzers 1606
8.52 Refractometers 1620
8.53 Rheometers 1628
8.54 Streaming Current or Particle Charge Analyzer 1637
8.55 Sulfur-in-Oil Analyzers 1641
8.56 Sulfur Oxide Analyzers 1646
8.57 Thermal Conductivity Detectors 1653
8.58 Total Carbon Analyzers 1658
8.59 Toxic Gas Monitoring 1666
8.60 Turbidity, Sludge, and Suspended Solids 1680
8.61 Ultraviolet and Visible Analyzers 1687
8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1700
8.63 Viscometers—Laboratory 1708
8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1723
8.65 Water Quality Monitoring 1744
8.66 Wet Chemistry and Autotitrator Analyzers 1755

Appendix 1765

A.1 International System of Units 1767
A.2 Engineering Conversion Factors 1777
A.3 Chemical Resistance of Materials 1799
A.4 Composition of Metallic and Other Materials 1806
A.5 Steam and Water Tables 1809
A.6 Friction Loss in Pipes 1817
A.7 Tank Volumes 1821
A.8 Directory of “Lost” Companies 1824

Contributors xi
Introduction xix
Definitions xxix
Societies and Organizations li
Abbreviations, Nomenclature, Acronyms, and Symbols liii
1 General 1

1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 3
1.2 Computer Configurations of Supervisory Units 15
1.3 Computers—Simulation by Analog and Hybrid Systems 26
1.4 Electronic vs. Pneumatic Instruments 41
1.5 Human Engineering 46
1.6 Process Alarm Management 59
1.7 Speech Synthesis and Voice Recognition 64
1.8 Wiring Practices and Signal Conditioning 71

2 Control Theory 89

2.1 Control Basics 96
2.2 Control Modes—PID Controllers 114
2.3 Control Modes—PID Variations 124
2.4 Control Modes—Digital PID Controllers 130
2.5 Control Modes —Closed-Loop Response 135
2.6 Control Systems—Cascade Loops 148
2.7 Empirical Process Optimization 157
2.8 Expert Systems 162
2.9 Feedback and Feedforward Control 173
2.10 Genetic and Other Evolutionary Algorithms 181
2.11 Hierarchical Control 193
2.12 Interaction and Decoupling 205
2.13 Model-Based Control 209
2.14 Model-Based Predictive Control Patents 214
2.15 Model-Free Adaptive (MFA) Control 224
2.16 Modeling and Simulation of Processes 234
2.17 Model Predictive Control and Optimization 242
2.18 Neural Networks for Process Modeling 253
2.19 Nonlinear and Adaptive Control 265
2.20 Optimizing Control 274
2.21 PID Algorithms and Programming 284
2.22 Process Gains, Time Lags, Reaction Curves 296
2.23 Ratio Control 305
2.24 Real-Time Performance Assessment 311
2.25 Relative Gain Calculations 318
2.26 Robustness: A Guide for Sensitivity and Stability 323
2.27 Sampled Data Control Systems 326
2.28 Selective, Override, and Limit Controls 336
2.29 Self-Tuning Controllers 345
2.30 Sliding Mode Control in Process Industry 351
2.31 Software for Fuzzy Logic Control 360
2.32 Stability Analysis, Transfer Functions 375
2.33 State Space Control 393
2.34 Statistical Process Control 405
2.35 Tuning PID Controllers 414
2.36 Tuning Level Control Loops 432
2.37 Tuning Interacting Loops, Synchronizing Loops 442
2.38 Tuning by Computer 446

3 Transmitters and Local Controllers 457

3.1 Controllers—Pneumatic 460
3.2 Controllers—Electronic 478
3.3 Converters and Dampeners 488
3.4 Relays for Computing and Programmers 493
3.5 Telemetering Systems 507
3.6 Transmitters—Electronic 520
3.7 Transmitters—Fiber-Optic Transmission 535
3.8 Transmitters—Pneumatic 547
3.9 Transmitters: Self-Checking and Self-Validating 559
3.10 Transmitters: Smart, Multivariable, and Fieldbus 567

4 Control Room Equipment 575

4.1 Annunciators and Alarms 580
4.2 Control Centers and Panels—Traditional 598
4.3 Control Center Upgrading 618
4.4 Controllers—Electronic Analog and Digital 633
4.5 CRT Displays 650
4.6 DCS: Basic Trends and Advances 663
4.7 DCS: Control and Simulation Advances 677
4.8 DCS: Installation and Commissioning 687
4.9 DCS: Integration with Buses and Networks 693
4.10 DCS: Integration with Other Systems 700
4.11 DCS: Management of Abnormal Situations 706
4.12 DCS: Modern Control Graphics 720
4.13 DCS: Operator’s Graphics 727
4.14 DCS: System Architecture 739
4.15 Digital Readouts and Graphic Displays 757
4.16 Fieldbuses and Network Protocols 770
4.17 Human–Machine Interface Evolution 790
4.18 Indicators, Analog Displays 805
4.19 Lights 812
4.20 Recorders, Oscillographs, Loggers, Tape Recorders 818
4.21 Switches, Pushbuttons, Keyboards 829
4.22 Touch Screen Displays 845
4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 854
4.24 Workstation Designs 868

5 PLCs and Other Logic Devices 877

5.1 Binary Logic Diagrams for Process Operations 880
5.2 Ladder Diagrams 893
5.3 Optimization of Logic Circuits 898
5.4 PLCs: Programmable Logic Controllers 906
5.5 PLC Programming 944
5.6 PLC Software Advances 966
5.7 Practical Logic Design 976
5.8 Programmable Safety Systems 993
5.9 Relays 1006
5.10 Solid-State Logic Elements 1015
5.11 System Integration: Computers with PLCs 1023
5.12 Time Delay Relays 1030
5.13 Timers and Programming Timers 1036

6 Control Valve Selection and Sizing 1045

6.1 Application and Selection of Control Valves 1050
6.2 Accessories and Positioners 1087
6.3 Actuators: Digital, Electric, Hydraulic, Solenoid 1105
6.4 Actuators: Pneumatic 1124
6.5 Advanced Stem Packing Designs 1144
6.6 Capacity Testing 1150
6.7 Characteristics and Rangeability 1154
6.8 Diagnostics and Predictive Valve Maintenance 1161
6.9 Dynamic Performance of Control Valves 1165
6.10 Emergency Partial-Stroke Testing of Block Valves 1172
6.11 Fieldbus and Smart Valves 1182
6.12 Intelligent Valves, Positioners, Accessories 1193
6.13 Miscellaneous Valve and Trim Designs 1199
6.14 Valves: Noise Calculation, Prediction, and Reduction 1213
6.15 Sizing 1234
6.16 Valve Types: Ball Valves 1262
6.17 Valve Types: Butterfly Valves 1273
6.18 Valve Types: Digital Valves 1284
6.19 Valve Types: Globe Valves 1290
6.20 Valve Types: Pinch Valves 1323
6.21 Valve Types: Plug Valves 1341
6.22 Valve Types: Saunders Diaphragm Valves 1348
6.23 Valve Types: Sliding Gate Valves 1353

7 Regulators and Final Control Elements 1359

7.1 Dampers and Louvers 1362
7.2 Electric Energy Modulation 1368
7.3 Linear and Angular Positioning of Machinery 1375
7.4 Pumps as Control Elements 1382
7.5 Regulators—Flow 1397
7.6 Regulators—Level 1405
7.7 Regulators— Pressure 1412
7.8 Regulators—Temperature 1426
7.9 Thermostats and Humidistats 1440
7.10 Variable-Speed Drives 1454

8 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations 1473

8.1 Aeration and DO Controls 1484
8.2 Airhandler and Building Conditioning Controls 1507
8.3 Batch Control Description, Terminology, and Standard S88 1528
8.4 Batch Processes and their Automation 1544
8.5 Blending and Ratio Controls 1558
8.6 Boiler Control and Optimization 1572
8.7 Centrifuge Controls 1632
8.8 Chemical Reactors: Batch Sequencing 1640
8.9 Chemical Reactors: Basic Control Strategies 1664
8.10 Chemical Reactors: Control and Optimization 1697
8.11 Chemical Reactors: Simulation and Modeling 1711
8.12 Chiller Control 1720
8.13 Chiller Optimization 1729
8.14 Clean-Room Controls and Optimization 1753
8.15 Compressor Control and Optimization 1763
8.16 Cooling Tower Control 1794
8.17 Cooling Tower Optimization 1805
8.18 Crystallizer Controls 1811
8.19 Distillation: Basic Controls 1820
8.20 Distillation: Calculations of Relative Gains 1855
8.21 Distillation: Optimization and Advanced Controls 1866
8.22 Dryer Controls 1904
8.23 Evaporator Controls 1914
8.24 Extruder Controls 1932
8.25 Fan Controls 1946
8.26 Fuel Cell Controls 1952
8.27 Furnace and Reformer Controls 1966
8.28 Header-Supplied Distribution Control 1993
8.29 Heat Exchanger Control and Optimization 2004
8.30 Inert Gas Blanketing Controls 2025
8.31 ORP Controls 2032
8.32 pH Control 2044
8.33 Power Plant Controls: Cogeneration and Combined Cycle 2057
8.34 Pump Controls 2084
8.35 Pump Optimization 2110
8.36 Rolling Mill Controls 2116
8.37 Separation Controls, Air 2123
8.38 Steam Turbine Controls 2137
8.39 Wastewater Treatment Controls 2152
8.40 Water Supply Plant Controls 2172
8.41 Well-Supplied Underground Gas Storage Controls 2194

Appendix 2209

A.1 International System of Units 2210
A.2 Engineering Conversion Factors 2220
A.3 Chemical Resistance of Materials (Table A.3) 2242
A.4 Composition of Metallic and Other Materials (Table A.4) 2251
A.5 Steam and Water Tables 2254
A.6 Friction Loss in Pipes 2262
A.7 Tank Volumes 2266
A.8 Partial List of Suppliers 2269
A.9 Directory of “Lost” Companies (Revised 6/2004) 2295
A.10 ISA Standards 2302

1 Calculus 7
1.1 Introduction to calculus 8

1.2 The concept of differentiation 11
1.3 The concept of integration 16
1.4 How derivatives and integrals relate to one another 25
1.5 Numerical differentiation 28
1.6 Numerical integration 38

2 Physics 53

2.1 Terms and Definitions 54
2.2 Metric prefixes 55
2.3 Unit conversions and physical constants 56
2.3.1 Conversion formulae for temperature 59
2.3.2 Conversion factors for distance 59
2.3.3 Conversion factors for volume 59
2.3.4 Conversion factors for velocity 59
2.3.5 Conversion factors for mass 59
2.3.6 Conversion factors for force 59
2.3.7 Conversion factors for area 60
2.3.8 Conversion factors for pressure (either all gauge or all absolute) 60
2.3.9 Conversion factors for pressure (absolute pressure units only) 60
2.3.10 Conversion factors for energy or work 60
2.3.11 Conversion factors for power 60
2.3.12 Terrestrial constants 61
2.3.13 Properties of water 61
2.3.14 Miscellaneous physical constants 62
2.3.15 Weight densities of common materials 63
2.4 Dimensional analysis 65
2.5 The International System of Units 66
2.6 Conservation Laws 67
2.7 Classical mechanics 67
2.7.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion 68
2.7.2 Work, energy, and power 69
2.7.3 Mechanical springs 78
2.7.4 Rotational motion 80
2.8 Elementary thermodynamics 86
2.8.1 Heat versus Temperature 87
2.8.2 Temperature 88
2.8.3 Heat 90
2.8.4 Heat transfer 91
2.8.5 Specific heat and enthalpy 102
2.8.6 Phase changes 109
2.8.7 Phase diagrams and critical points 116
2.8.8 Thermodynamic degrees of freedom 119
2.8.9 Applications of phase changes 120
2.9 Fluid mechanics 128
2.9.1 Pressure 129
2.9.2 Pascal’s Principle and hydrostatic pressure 134
2.9.3 Fluid density expressions 139
2.9.4 Manometers 141
2.9.5 Systems of pressure measurement 145
2.9.6 Buoyancy 148
2.9.7 Gas Laws 154
2.9.8 Fluid viscosity 156
2.9.9 Reynolds number 157
2.9.10 Law of Continuity 161
2.9.11 Viscous flow 163
2.9.12 Bernoulli’s equation 164
2.9.13 Torricelli’s equation 174
2.9.14 Flow through a venturi tube 175

3 Chemistry 181

3.1 Terms and Definitions 183
3.2 Atomic theory and chemical symbols 185
3.3 Periodic table of the elements 190
3.4 Electronic structure 194
3.5 Spectroscopy 202
3.5.1 Emission spectroscopy 206
3.5.2 Absorption spectroscopy 209
3.6 Formulae for common chemical compounds 211
3.7 Molecular quantities 215
3.8 Stoichiometry 217
3.8.1 Balancing chemical equations by trial-and-error 218
3.8.2 Balancing chemical equations using algebra 220
3.8.3 Stoichiometric ratios 223
3.9 Energy in chemical reactions 225
3.10 Periodic table of the ions 229
3.11 Ions in liquid solutions 230
3.12 pH 231

4 DC electricity 237

4.1 Electrical voltage 238
4.2 Electrical current 244
4.2.1 Electron versus conventional flow 247
4.3 Electrical resistance and Ohm’s Law 253
4.4 Series versus parallel circuits 256
4.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws 260
4.6 Electrical sources and loads 263
4.7 Resistors 266
4.8 Bridge circuits 267
4.8.1 Component measurement 268
4.8.2 Sensor signal conditioning 270
4.9 Electromagnetism 276
4.10 Capacitors 282
4.11 Inductors 284

5 AC electricity 287

5.1 RMS quantities 288
5.2 Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance 292
5.3 Series and parallel circuits 292
5.4 Phasor mathematics 293
5.4.1 Crank diagrams and phase shifts 293
5.4.2 Complex numbers and phase shifts 298
5.4.3 Phasor expressions of impedance 301
5.4.4 Euler’s Relation and crank diagrams 306
5.4.5 The s variable 310
5.5 Polyphase AC power 312
5.5.1 Delta and Wye configurations 316
5.5.2 Power in three-phase circuits 320
5.5.3 Grounded three-phase circuits 322
5.6 Transmission lines 325
5.6.1 Open-ended transmission lines 326
5.6.2 Shorted transmission lines 328
5.6.3 Properly terminated transmission lines 330
5.6.4 Discontinuities 332
5.6.5 Velocity factor 332
5.6.6 Cable losses 332
5.7 Antennas 333
5.7.1 Maxwell and Hertz 337
5.7.2 Antenna size 339
5.7.3 Antenna orientation and directionality 340

6 Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation 345

6.1 Example: boiler water level control system 348
6.2 Example: wastewater disinfection 353
6.3 Example: chemical reactor temperature control 355
6.4 Other types of instruments 356
6.4.1 Indicators 357
6.4.2 Recorders 360
6.4.3 Process switches and alarms 363
6.5 Summary 372

7 Instrumentation documents 375

7.1 Process Flow Diagrams 377
7.2 Process and Instrument Diagrams 379
7.3 Loop diagrams 381
7.4 Functional diagrams 384
7.5 Instrument and process equipment symbols 387
7.5.1 Line types 388
7.5.2 Process/Instrument line connections 389
7.5.3 Instrument bubbles 389
7.5.4 Process valve types 390
7.5.5 Valve actuator types 391
7.5.6 Valve failure mode 392
7.5.7 Liquid level measurement devices 393
7.5.8 Flow measurement devices (flowing left-to-right) 394
7.5.9 Process equipment 396
7.5.10 Functional diagram symbols 397
7.5.11 Single-line electrical diagram symbols 398
7.5.12 Fluid power diagram symbols 400
7.6 Instrument identification tags 402

8 Instrument connections 407

8.1 Pipe and pipe fittings 407
8.1.1 Flanged pipe fittings 408
8.1.2 Tapered thread pipe fittings 415
8.1.3 Parallel thread pipe fittings 418
8.1.4 Sanitary pipe fittings 419
8.2 Tube and tube fittings 423
8.2.1 Compression tube fittings 424
8.2.2 Common tube fitting types and names 428
8.2.3 Bending instrument tubing 431
8.2.4 Special tubing tools 433
8.3 Electrical signal and control wiring 435
8.3.1 Connections and wire terminations 436
8.3.2 DIN rail 445
8.3.3 Cable routing 448
8.3.4 Signal coupling and cable separation 456
8.3.5 Electric field (capacitive) de-coupling 461
8.3.6 Magnetic field (inductive) de-coupling 467
8.3.7 High-frequency signal cables 470

9 Discrete process measurement 473

9.1 “Normal” status of a switch 474
9.2 Hand switches 476
9.3 Limit switches 478
9.4 Proximity switches 480
9.5 Pressure switches 485
9.6 Level switches 490
9.6.1 Float-type level switches 491
9.6.2 Tuning fork level switches 493
9.6.3 Paddle-wheel level switches 494
9.6.4 Ultrasonic level switches 495
9.6.5 Capacitive level switches 496
9.6.6 Conductive level switches 497
9.7 Temperature switches 499
9.8 Flow switches 503

10 Discrete control elements 505

10.1 On/off valves 506
10.2 Fluid power systems 508
10.3 Solenoid valves 518
10.3.1 2-way solenoid valves 519
10.3.2 3-way solenoid valves 522
10.3.3 4-way solenoid valves 526
10.3.4 Normal energization states 531
10.4 On/off electric motor control circuits 534
10.4.1 AC induction motors 535
10.4.2 Motor contactors 540
10.4.3 Motor protection 542
10.4.4 Motor control circuit wiring 551

11 Relay control systems 557

11.1 Control relays 559
11.2 Relay circuits 563

12 Programmable Logic Controllers 571

12.1 PLC examples 572
12.2 Input/Output (I/O) capabilities 581
12.2.1 Discrete I/O 583
12.2.2 Analog I/O 590
12.2.3 Network I/O 592
12.3 Logic programming 593
12.3.1 Relating I/O status to virtual elements 594
12.3.2 Memory maps and I/O addressing 602
12.4 Ladder Diagram (LD) programming 608
12.4.1 Contacts and coils 610
12.4.2 Counters 628
12.4.3 Timers 633
12.4.4 Data comparison instructions 638
12.4.5 Math instructions 641
12.4.6 Sequencers 644
12.5 Structured Text (ST) programming 654
12.6 Instruction List (IL) programming 654
12.7 Function Block Diagram (FBD) programming 654
12.8 Sequential Function Chart (SFC) programming 654
12.9 Human-Machine Interfaces 655
12.10How to teach yourself PLC programming 661

13 Analog electronic instrumentation 665

13.1 4 to 20 mA analog current signals 665
13.2 Relating 4 to 20 mA signals to instrument variables 668
13.2.1 Example calculation: controller output to valve 671
13.2.2 Example calculation: flow transmitter 672
13.2.3 Example calculation: temperature transmitter 674
13.2.4 Example calculation: pH transmitter 677
13.2.5 Example calculation: reverse-acting I/P transducer signal 679
13.2.6 Example calculation: PLC analog input scaling 681
13.2.7 Graphical interpretation of signal ranges 684
13.2.8 Thinking in terms of percent 686
13.3 Controller output current loops 689
13.4 4-wire (“self-powered”) transmitter current loops 691
13.5 2-wire (“loop-powered”) transmitter current loops 693
13.6 Troubleshooting current loops 695
13.6.1 Using a standard milliammeter to measure loop current 697
13.6.2 Using a clamp-on milliammeter to measure loop current 699
13.6.3 Using “test” diodes to measure loop current 700
13.6.4 Using shunt resistors to measure loop current 702
13.6.5 Troubleshooting current loops with voltage measurements 703
13.6.6 Using loop calibrators 707
13.6.7 NAMUR signal levels 714

14 Pneumatic instrumentation 715

14.1 Pneumatic sensing elements 721
14.2 Self-balancing pneumatic instrument principles 723
14.3 Pilot valves and pneumatic amplifying relays 728
14.4 Analogy to opamp circuits 738
14.5 Analysis of practical pneumatic instruments 749
14.5.1 Foxboro model 13A differential pressure transmitter 750
14.5.2 Foxboro model E69 “I/P” electro-pneumatic transducer 755
14.5.3 Fisher model 546 “I/P” electro-pneumatic transducer 760
14.5.4 Fisher-Rosemount model 846 “I/P” electro-pneumatic transducer 764
14.6 Proper care and feeding of pneumatic instruments 767
14.7 Advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic instruments 768

15 Digital data acquisition and networks 771

15.1 Digital representation of numerical data 775
15.1.1 Integer number formats 776
15.1.2 Fixed-point number formats 778
15.1.3 Floating-point number formats 779
15.1.4 Example of industrial number formats 781
15.2 Digital representation of text 783
15.2.1 Morse and Baudot codes 784
15.2.2 EBCDIC and ASCII 785
15.2.3 Unicode 787
15.3 Analog-digital conversion 787
15.3.1 Converter resolution 788
15.3.2 Converter sampling rate 793
15.4 Analog signal conditioning and referencing 795
15.4.1 Instrumentation amplifiers 796
15.4.2 Analog input references and connections 805
15.5 Digital data communication theory 818
15.5.1 Serial communication principles 820
15.5.2 Physical encoding of bits 823
15.5.3 Communication speed 826
15.5.4 Data frames 828
15.5.5 Channel arbitration 836
15.5.6 The OSI Reference Model 842
15.6 EIA/TIA-232, 422, and 485 networks 845
15.6.1 EIA/TIA-232 846
15.6.2 EIA/TIA-422 and EIA/TIA-485 850
15.7 Ethernet networks 857
15.7.1 Repeaters (hubs) 858
15.7.2 Ethernet cabling 861
15.7.3 Switching hubs 865
15.8 Internet Protocol (IP) 867
15.8.1 IP addresses 868
15.8.2 Subnetworks and subnet masks 872
15.8.3 Routing tables 876
15.8.4 IP version 6 877
15.8.5 DNS 878
15.8.6 Command-line diagnostic utilities 879
15.9 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 882
15.10The HART digital/analog hybrid standard 884
15.10.1Basic concept of HART 885
15.10.2HART physical layer 890
15.10.3HART multidrop mode 896
15.10.4HART multi-variable transmitters and burst mode 897
15.11Modbus 898
15.11.1Modbus data frames 899
15.11.2Modbus function codes and addresses 901
15.11.3Modbus function command formats 902

16 FOUNDATION Fieldbus instrumentation 911

16.1 FF design philosophy 912
16.2 H1 FF Physical layer 918
16.2.1 Segment topology 919
16.2.2 Coupling devices 923
16.2.3 Electrical parameters 926
16.2.4 Cable types 928
16.2.5 Segment design 931
16.3 H1 FF Data Link layer 933
16.3.1 Device addressing 935
16.3.2 Communication management 936
16.3.3 Device capability 945
16.4 FF function blocks 945
16.4.1 Analog function blocks versus digital function blocks 946
16.4.2 Function block location 947
16.4.3 Standard function blocks 952
16.4.4 Device-specific function blocks 954
16.4.5 FF signal status 955
16.4.6 Function block modes 957
16.5 H1 FF device configuration and commissioning 958
16.5.1 Configuration files 958
16.5.2 Device commissioning 960
16.5.3 Calibration and ranging 969
16.6 H1 FF segment troubleshooting 975
16.6.1 Cable resistance 976
16.6.2 Signal strength 976
16.6.3 Electrical noise 977
16.6.4 Using an oscilloscope on H1 segments 977
16.6.5 Message re-transmissions 979

17 Wireless instrumentation 981

17.1 Radio systems 982
17.1.1 Decibels 984
17.1.2 Antenna radiation patterns 991
17.1.3 Antenna gain calculations 994
17.1.4 Effective radiated power 996
17.1.5 RF link budget 997
17.1.6 Fresnel zones 1002
17.2 WirelessHART 1004
17.2.1 Introduction to WirelessHART 1005
17.2.2 WirelessHART network protocol 1009
17.2.3 WirelessHART network gateway device 1012
17.2.4 WirelessHART device commissioning and configuration 1016
18 Instrument calibration 1021
18.1 Calibration versus re-ranging 1021
18.2 Zero and span adjustments (analog instruments) 1022
18.3 Typical calibration errors 1025
18.3.1 As-found and as-left documentation 1030
18.3.2 Up-tests and Down-tests 1031
18.4 Damping adjustments 1032
18.5 LRV and URV settings, digital trim (digital transmitters) 1036
18.6 An analogy for calibration versus ranging 1042
18.7 Calibration procedures 1043
18.7.1 Linear instruments 1043
18.7.2 Nonlinear instruments 1044
18.7.3 Discrete instruments 1045
18.8 Instrument turndown 1046
18.9 NIST traceability 1047
18.10Practical calibration standards 1050
18.10.1Electrical standards 1052
18.10.2Temperature standards 1054
18.10.3Pressure standards 1060
18.10.4Flow standards 1065
18.10.5Analytical standards 1066

19 Continuous pressure measurement 1071

19.1 Manometers 1072
19.2 Mechanical pressure elements 1078
19.3 Electrical pressure elements 1084
19.3.1 Piezoresistive (strain gauge) sensors 1085
19.3.2 Differential capacitance sensors 1090
19.3.3 Resonant element sensors 1098
19.3.4 Mechanical adaptations 1101
19.4 Force-balance pressure transmitters 1102
19.5 Differential pressure transmitters 1105
19.5.1 DP transmitter construction and behavior 1106
19.5.2 DP transmitter applications 1113
19.5.3 Inferential measurement applications 1119
19.6 Pressure sensor accessories 1122
19.6.1 Valve manifolds 1123
19.6.2 Bleed (vent) fittings 1129
19.6.3 Pressure pulsation damping 1130
19.6.4 Remote and chemical seals 1133
19.6.5 Filled impulse lines 1143
19.6.6 Purged impulse lines 1145
19.6.7 Heat-traced impulse lines 1147
19.6.8 Water traps and pigtail siphons 1150
19.6.9 Mounting brackets 1152
19.6.10Heated enclosures 1153
19.7 Process/instrument suitability 1155

20 Continuous level measurement 1159

20.1 Level gauges (sightglasses) 1159
20.1.1 Basic concepts of sightglasses 1160
20.1.2 Interface problems 1162
20.1.3 Temperature problems 1164
20.2 Float 1165
20.3 Hydrostatic pressure 1171
20.3.1 Pressure of a fluid column 1172
20.3.2 Bubbler systems 1177
20.3.3 Transmitter suppression and elevation 1181
20.3.4 Compensated leg systems 1185
20.3.5 Tank expert systems 1193
20.3.6 Hydrostatic interface level measurement 1197
20.4 Displacement 1203
20.4.1 Buoyant-force instruments 1204
20.4.2 Torque tubes 1209
20.4.3 Displacement interface level measurement 1216
20.5 Echo 1219
20.5.1 Ultrasonic level measurement 1221
20.5.2 Radar level measurement 1226
20.5.3 Laser level measurement 1238
20.5.4 Magnetostrictive level measurement 1239
20.6 Weight 1243
20.7 Capacitive 1248
20.8 Radiation 1251
20.9 Level sensor accessories 1254

21 Continuous temperature measurement 1259

21.1 Bi-metal temperature sensors 1261
21.2 Filled-bulb temperature sensors 1263
21.3 Thermistors and Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) 1267
21.3.1 Temperature coefficient of resistance (α) 1268
21.3.2 Two-wire RTD circuits 1270
21.3.3 Four-wire RTD circuits 1271
21.3.4 Three-wire RTD circuits 1272
21.3.5 Proper RTD sensor connections 1275
21.3.6 Self-heating error 1278
21.4 Thermocouples 1279
21.4.1 Dissimilar metal junctions 1280
21.4.2 Thermocouple types 1282
21.4.3 Connector and tip styles 1283
21.4.4 Manually interpreting thermocouple voltages 1287
21.4.5 Reference junction compensation 1289
21.4.6 Law of Intermediate Metals 1293
21.4.7 Software compensation 1297
21.4.8 Extension wire 1299
21.4.9 Side-effects of reference junction compensation 1304
21.4.10Burnout detection 1310
21.5 Non-contact temperature sensors 1311
21.5.1 Concentrating pyrometers 1312
21.5.2 Distance considerations 1315
21.5.3 Emissivity 1320
21.5.4 Thermal imaging 1320
21.6 Temperature sensor accessories 1324
21.7 Process/instrument suitability 1328

22 Continuous fluid flow measurement 1331

22.1 Pressure-based flowmeters 1332
22.1.1 Venturi tubes and basic principles 1338
22.1.2 Volumetric flow calculations 1344
22.1.3 Mass flow calculations 1347
22.1.4 Square-root characterization 1350
22.1.5 Orifice plates 1359
22.1.6 Other differential producers 1374
22.1.7 Proper installation 1382
22.1.8 High-accuracy flow measurement 1387
22.1.9 Equation summary 1394
22.2 Laminar flowmeters 1397
22.3 Variable-area flowmeters 1398
22.3.1 Rotameters 1399
22.3.2 Weirs and flumes 1402
22.4 Velocity-based flowmeters 1410
22.4.1 Turbine flowmeters 1411
22.4.2 Vortex flowmeters 1420
22.4.3 Magnetic flowmeters 1424
22.4.4 Ultrasonic flowmeters 1435
22.5 Positive displacement flowmeters 1443
22.6 Standardized volumetric flow 1446
22.7 True mass flowmeters 1452
22.7.1 Coriolis flowmeters 1455
22.7.2 Thermal flowmeters 1470
22.8 Weighfeeders 1474
22.9 Change-of-quantity flow measurement 1477
22.10Insertion flowmeters 1480
22.11Process/instrument suitability 1486

23 Continuous analytical measurement 1489

23.1 Conductivity measurement 1490
23.1.1 Dissociation and ionization in aqueous solutions 1491
23.1.2 Two-electrode conductivity probes 1492
23.1.3 Four-electrode conductivity probes 1494
23.1.4 Electrodeless conductivity probes 1497
23.2 pH measurement 1499
23.2.1 Colorimetric pH measurement 1499
23.2.2 Potentiometric pH measurement 1500
23.3 Chromatography 1520
23.3.1 Manual chromatography methods 1521
23.3.2 Automated chromatographs 1522
23.3.3 Species identification 1524
23.3.4 Chromatograph detectors 1525
23.3.5 Measuring species concentration 1527
23.3.6 Industrial applications of chromatographs 1530
23.3.7 Chromatograph sample valves 1533
23.3.8 Improving chromatograph analysis time 1536
23.4 Optical analyses 1541
23.4.1 Dispersive spectroscopy 1548
23.4.2 Non-dispersive spectroscopy 1551
23.4.3 Fluorescence 1570
23.4.4 Chemiluminescence 1578
23.5 Analyzer sample systems 1582
23.6 Safety gas analyzers 1587
23.6.1 Oxygen gas 1591
23.6.2 Lower explosive limit (LEL) 1592
23.6.3 Hydrogen sulfide gas 1593
23.6.4 Carbon monoxide gas 1594
23.6.5 Chlorine gas 1595

24 Machine vibration measurement 1599

24.1 Vibration physics 1599
24.1.1 Sinusoidal vibrations 1600
24.1.2 Non-sinusoidal vibrations 1605
24.2 Vibration sensors 1611
24.3 Monitoring hardware 1615
24.4 Mechanical vibration switches 1618

25 Signal characterization 1621

25.1 Flow measurement from differential pressure 1622
25.2 Flow measurement in open channels 1629
25.3 Liquid volume measurement 1632
25.4 Radiative temperature measurement 1641
25.5 Analytical measurements 1642

26 Control valves 1647

26.1 Sliding-stem valves 1648
26.1.1 Globe valves 1649
26.1.2 Gate valves 1657
26.1.3 Diaphragm valves 1657
26.2 Rotary-stem valves 1659
26.2.1 Ball valves 1660
26.2.2 Butterfly valves 1660
26.2.3 Disk valves 1661
26.3 Dampers and louvres 1662
26.4 Valve packing 1665
26.5 Valve seat leakage 1674
26.6 Control valve actuators 1675
26.6.1 Pneumatic actuators 1676
26.6.2 Hydraulic actuators 1684
26.6.3 Self-operated valves 1685
26.6.4 Electric actuators 1689
26.6.5 Hand (manual) actuators 1693
26.7 Valve failure mode 1693
26.7.1 Direct/reverse actions 1694
26.7.2 Available failure modes 1696
26.7.3 Selecting the proper failure mode 1697
26.8 Actuator bench-set 1699
26.9 Pneumatic actuator response 1704
26.10Valve positioners 1708
26.10.1Force-balance pneumatic positioners 1713
26.10.2Motion-balance pneumatic positioners 1717
26.10.3Electronic positioners 1720
26.11Split-ranging 1725
26.11.1Complementary valve sequencing 1726
26.11.2Exclusive valve sequencing 1728
26.11.3Progressive valve sequencing 1730
26.11.4Valve sequencing implementations 1732
26.12Control valve sizing 1739
26.12.1Physics of energy dissipation in a turbulent fluid stream 1740
26.12.2 Importance of proper valve sizing 1745
26.12.3Gas valve sizing 1750
26.12.4Relative flow capacity 1751
26.13Control valve characterization 1752
26.13.1 Inherent versus installed characteristics 1753
26.13.2Control valve performance with constant pressure 1755
26.13.3Control valve performance with varying pressure 1758
26.13.4Characterized valve trim 1761
26.14Control valve problems 1766
26.14.1Mechanical friction 1767
26.14.2Flashing 1771
26.14.3Cavitation 1775
26.14.4Choked flow 1782
26.14.5Valve noise 1784
26.14.6Erosion 1786
26.14.7Chemical attack 1791

27 Variable-speed motor controls 1795

27.1 DC motor speed control 1797
27.2 AC motor speed control 1805
27.3 AC motor braking 1810
27.3.1 DC injection braking 1811
27.3.2 Dynamic braking 1812
27.3.3 Regenerative braking 1814
27.3.4 Plugging 1816
27.4 Motor drive features 1817
27.5 Use of line reactors 1818
27.6 Metering pumps 1821

28 Closed-loop control 1823

28.1 Basic feedback control principles 1824
28.2 On/off control 1831
28.3 Proportional-only control 1833
28.4 Proportional-only offset 1840
28.5 Integral (reset) control 1845
28.6 Derivative (rate) control 1850
28.7 Summary of PID control terms 1852
28.7.1 Proportional control mode (P) 1852
28.7.2 Integral control mode (I) 1853
28.7.3 Derivative control mode (D) 1854
28.8 P, I, and D responses graphed 1854
28.8.1 Responses to a single step-change 1855
28.8.2 Responses to a momentary step-and-return 1856
28.8.3 Responses to two momentary steps-and-returns 1858
28.8.4 Responses to a ramp-and-hold 1859
28.8.5 Responses to an up-and-down ramp 1860
28.8.6 Responses to a sine wavelet 1861
28.8.7 Note to students regarding quantitative graphing 1863
28.9 Different PID equations 1867
28.9.1 Parallel PID equation 1868
28.9.2 Ideal PID equation 1869
28.9.3 Series PID equation 1870
28.10Pneumatic PID controllers 1871
28.10.1Proportional control action 1872
28.10.2Automatic and manual modes 1876
28.10.3Derivative control action 1878
28.10.4 Integral control action 1879
28.10.5Fisher MultiTrol 1882
28.10.6Foxboro model 43AP 1885
28.10.7Foxboro model 130 1887
28.10.8External reset (integral) feedback 1890
28.11Analog electronic PID controllers 1892
28.11.1Proportional control action 1893
28.11.2Derivative and integral control actions 1895
28.11.3Full-PID circuit design 1898
28.11.4 Single-loop analog controllers 1901
28.11.5Multi-loop analog control systems 1903
28.12Digital PID controllers 1906
28.12.1 Stand-alone digital controllers 1906
28.12.2Direct digital control (DDC) 1911
28.12.3SCADA and telemetry systems 1918
28.12.4Distributed Control Systems (DCS) 1923
28.12.5Fieldbus control 1929
28.13Practical PID controller features 1932
28.13.1Manual and automatic modes 1933
28.13.2 Output and setpoint tracking 1934
28.13.3Alarm capabilities 1936
28.13.4 Output and setpoint limiting 1936
28.13.5 Security 1937
28.14Digital PID algorithms 1938
28.14.1 Introduction to pseudocode 1938
28.14.2Position versus velocity algorithms 1944
28.15Note to students 1949
28.15.1Proportional-only control action 1950
28.15.2 Integral-only control action 1951
28.15.3Proportional plus integral control action 1952
28.15.4Proportional plus derivative control action 1953
28.15.5Full PID control action 1954

29 Process dynamics and PID controller tuning 1957

29.1 Process characteristics 1958
29.1.1 Self-regulating processes 1959
29.1.2 Integrating processes 1962
29.1.3 Runaway processes 1969
29.1.4 Steady-state process gain 1974
29.1.5 Lag time 1979
29.1.6 Multiple lags (orders) 1985
29.1.7 Dead time 1991
29.1.8 Hysteresis 1996
29.2 Before you tune 1999
29.2.1 Identifying operational needs 2000
29.2.2 Identifying process and system hazards 2002
29.2.3 Identifying the problem(s) 2003
29.2.4 Final precautions 2004
29.3 Quantitative PID tuning procedures 2005
29.3.1 Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop (“Ultimate Gain”) 2006
29.3.2 Ziegler-Nichols open-loop 2010
29.4 Heuristic PID tuning procedures 2013
29.4.1 Features of P, I, and D actions 2014
29.4.2 Tuning recommendations based on process dynamics 2015
29.4.3 Recognizing an over-tuned controller 2016
29.5 Tuning techniques compared 2021
29.5.1 Tuning a “generic” process 2022
29.5.2 Tuning a liquid level process 2027
29.5.3 Tuning a temperature process 2031
29.6 Note to students 2035
29.6.1 Electrically simulating a process 2036
29.6.2 Building a “Desktop Process” unit 2037
29.6.3 Simulating a process by computer 2041

30 Basic process control strategies 2043

30.1 Supervisory control 2044
30.2 Cascade control 2046
30.3 Ratio control 2054
30.4 Relation control 2062
30.5 Feedforward control 2064
30.5.1 Load Compensation 2065
30.5.2 Proportioning feedforward action 2076
30.6 Feedforward with dynamic compensation 2081
30.6.1 Dead time compensation 2082
30.6.2 Lag time compensation 2088
30.6.3 Lead/Lag and dead time function blocks 2094
30.7 Limit, Selector, and Override controls 2105
30.7.1 Limit controls 2108
30.7.2 Selector controls 2113
30.7.3 Override controls 2122

31 Process safety and instrumentation 2129

31.1 Classified areas and electrical safety measures 2129
31.1.1 Classified area taxonomy 2130
31.1.2 Explosive limits 2132
31.1.3 Protective measures 2135
31.2 Concepts of probability 2140
31.2.1 Mathematical probability 2141
31.2.2 Laws of probability 2143
31.3 Practical measures of reliability 2152
31.3.1 Failure rate and MTBF 2153
31.3.2 The “bathtub” curve 2159
31.3.3 Reliability 2161
31.3.4 Probability of failure on demand (PFD) 2164
31.4 High-reliability systems 2166
31.4.1 Design and selection for reliability 2167
31.4.2 Preventive maintenance 2168
31.4.3 Component de-rating 2170
31.4.4 Redundant components 2171
31.4.5 Proof tests and self-diagnostics 2176
31.5 Overpressure protection devices 2181
31.5.1 Rupture disks 2183
31.5.2 Direct-actuated safety and relief valves 2184
31.5.3 Pilot-operated safety and relief valves 2194
31.6 Safety Instrumented Functions and Systems 2195
31.6.1 SIS sensors 2199
31.6.2 SIS controllers (logic solvers) 2204
31.6.3 SIS final control elements 2206
31.6.4 Safety Integrity Levels 2210
31.6.5 SIS example: burner management systems 2211
31.6.6 SIS example: water treatment oxygen purge system 2218
31.6.7 SIS example: nuclear reactor scram controls 2222

32 Problem-solving and diagnostic strategies 2229

32.1 General problem-solving techniques 2229
32.1.1 Identifying and classifying all “known” conditions 2230
32.1.2 Re-cast the problem in a different format 2230
32.1.3 Using thought experiments 2231
32.2 Mathematical problem-solving techniques 2231
32.2.1 Double-checking calculations 2232
32.3 Problem-solving by simplification 2236
32.3.1 Limiting cases 2237
32.4 Classic diagnostic mistakes 2243
32.5 Helpful “tricks” using a digital multimeter (DMM) 2243
32.5.1 Recording unattended measurements 2244
32.5.2 Avoiding “phantom” voltage readings 2245
32.5.3 Non-contact AC voltage detection 2248
32.5.4 Detecting AC power harmonics 2249
32.5.5 Identifying noise in DC signal paths 2250
32.5.6 Generating test voltages 2251
32.5.7 Using the meter as a temporary jumper 2252

A Flip-book animations 2253

A.1 Polyphase light bulbs animated 2253
A.2 Polyphase induction motor animated 2280
A.3 Differentiation and integration animated 2305
A.4 Basic chromatograph operation 2442

B Doctor Strangeflow, or how I learned to relax and love Reynolds numbers 2503
C Disassembly of a sliding-stem control valve 2513
D How to use this book – some advice for teachers 2523

D.1 Teaching technical theory 2524
D.1.1 The problem with lecture 2526
D.1.2 A more accurate model of learning 2528
D.1.3 The ultimate goal of education 2530
D.2 Teaching technical practices (labwork) 2533
D.3 Teaching diagnostic principles and practices 2540
D.3.1 Deductive diagnostic exercises 2541
D.3.2 Inductive diagnostic exercises 2548
D.4 Practical topic coverage 2555
D.5 Assessing student learning 2556
D.6 Summary 2558

E Contributors 2559

E.1 Error corrections 2560
E.2 New content 2560

F Creative Commons Attribution License 2561

F.1 A simple explanation of your rights

2562